TY - BOOK AU - Berk E. Laura TI - Child Development SN - 81.317.0685-0 U1 - 305.231 23 PY - 2007/// CY - India PB - Pearson N1 - A Personal Note to Students xii Preface for Instructors xii Part I: Theory and Research in Child Development 2 1 History, Theory, and Applied Directions 2 The Field of Child Development 4 Domains of Development 4 Periods of Development 5 Basic Issues 6 Continuous or Discontinuous Development? 7 One Course of Development or Many? 8 Relative Influence of Nature and Nurture? 8 A Balanced Point of View 9 Biology and Environment: Resilient Children 10 Historical Foundations 10 Medieval Times 10 The Reformation 11 Philosophies of the Enlightenment 12 Scientific Beginnings 12 From Research to Practice: Social Change and the Popular Literature on Parenting 15 Mid-Twentieth-Century Theories 16 The Psychoanalytic Perspective 16 Behaviorism and Social Learning Theory 19 Piaget¿s Cognitive-Developmental Theory 20 Recent Theoretical Perspectives 22 Information Processing 22 Ethology and Evolutionary Developmental Psychology 24 Vygotsky¿s Sociocultural Theory 25 Ecological Systems Theory 26 Cultural Influences: !Kung Infancy: Acquiring Culture 27 New Directions: Development as a Dynamic System 29 Comparing Child Development Theories 30 Applied Directions: Child Development and Social Policy 32 Culture and Public Policies 33 Contributions of Child Development Research 34 Social Issues: Welfare Reform, Poverty, and Child Development 35 Looking Toward the Future 36 Summary 37 Important Terms and Concepts 39 2 Research Strategies 40 From Theory to Hypothesis 42 Common Methods of Gathering Information 42 Systematic Observation 43 Self-Reports: Interviews and Questionnaires 46 Psychophysiological Methods 47 The Clinical, or Case Study, Method 49 Biology and Environment: Prenatal Iron Deficiency, Brain Development, and Memory Impairments in Infants of Diabetic Mothers: Findings of ERP Research 50 Methods for Studying Culture 50 Cultural Influences: Immigrant Youths: Amazing Adaptation 52 Reliability and Validity: Keys to Scientifically Sound Research 54 Reliability 54 Validity 54 General Research Designs 55 Correlational Design 55 Experimental Design 57 Modified Experimental Designs 57 Social Issues: Can Musical Experiences Enhance Intelligence? 59 Designs for Studying Development 60 The Longitudinal Design 60 The Cross-Sectional Design 62 Improving Developmental Designs 63 Ethics in Research on Children 65 From Research to Practice: Children¿s Research Risks: Developmental and Individual Differences 67 Summary 68 Important Terms and Concepts 69 Part II: Foundations of Development 70 3 Biological Foundations, Prenatal Development, and Birth 70 Genetic Foundations 72 The Genetic Code 72 The Sex Cells 73 Boy or Girl? 74 Multiple Offspring 74 Patterns of Genetic Inheritance 75 Chromosomal Abnormalities 80 Reproductive Choices 82 Genetic Counseling 82 Prenatal Diagnosis and Fetal Medicine 82 From Research to Practice: The Pros and Cons of Reproductive Technologies 84 Prenatal Development 86 Conception 87 Milestones: Prenatal Development 88 The Period of the Zygote 88 The Period of the Embryo 90 The Period of the Fetus 91 Prenatal Environmental Influences 93 Teratogens 93 Biology and Environment: The Prenatal Environment and Health in Later Life 96 Other Maternal Factors 102 Childbirth 106 The Baby¿s Adaptation to Labor and Delivery 106 The Newborn Baby¿s Appearance 107 Assessing the Newborn¿s Physical Condition: The Apgar Scale 108 Approaches to Childbirth 108 Natural, or Prepared, Childbirth 109 Home Delivery 110 Labor and Delivery Medication 111 Birth Complications 111 Oxygen Deprivation 111 Preterm and Low-Birth-Weight Infants 112 Social Issues: A Cross-National Perspective on Health Care and Other Policies for Parents and Newborn Babies 116 Birth Complications, Parenting, and Resilience 116 Heredity, Environment, and Behavior: A Look Ahead 118 The Question, ¿How Much?¿ 119 The Question, ¿How?¿ 120 Summary 124 Important Terms and Concepts 125 4 Infancy: Early Learning, Motor Skills, and Perceptual Capacities 126 The Organized Newborn 128 Reflexes 128 States 130 Cultural Influences: Cultural Variation in Infant Sleeping Arrangements 132 From Research to Practice: The Mysterious Tragedy of Sudden Infant Death Syndrome 134 Neonatal Behavioral Assessment 137 Learning Capacities 137 Motor Development in Infancy 144 The Sequence of Motor Development 145 Milestones: Gross and Fine Motor Development in the First Two Years 145 Motor Skills as Dynamic Systems 146 Fine Motor Development: Reaching and Grasping 148 Perceptual Development in Infancy 150 Touch 150 Taste and Smell 151 Hearing 152 Biology and Environment: ¿Tuning In¿ to Familiar Speech, Faces, and Music: A Sensitive Period for Culture-Specific Learning 154 Milestones: Development of Touch, Taste, Smell, and Hearing 155 Vision 155 Biology and Environment: Development of Infants with Severe Visual Impairments 159 Intermodal Perception 163 Milestones: Visual Development in Infancy 164 Understanding Perceptual Development 165 Early Deprivation and Enrichment: Is Infancy a Sensitive Period of Development? 167 Summary 169 Important Terms and Concepts 171 5 Physical Growth 172 The Course of Physical Growth 174 Changes in Body Size 174 Changes in Body Proportions 175 Changes in Muscle¿Fat Makeup 175 Skeletal Growth 176 Gains in Gross Motor Skills 176 Milestones: Gross Motor Development in Early and Middle Childhood 177 From Research to Practice: Sex Differences in Gross Motor Development 178 Hormonal Influences on Physical Growth 180 Worldwide Variations in Body Size 181 Secular Trends 182 Brain Development 183 Development of Neurons 183 Development of the Cerebral Cortex 184 Biology and Environment: Brain Plasticity: Insights from Research on Brain-Damaged Children and Adults 187 Other Advances in Brain Development 188 Sensitive Periods in Brain Development 189 Factors Affecting Physical Growth 190 Heredity 190 Nutrition 191 Biology and Environment: Low-Level Lead Exposure and Children¿s Development 192 Infectious Disease 198 Emotional Well-Being 199 Puberty: The Physical Transition to Adulthood 200 Sexual Maturation in Girls 200 Milestones: Pubertal Development in North American Boys and Girls 201 Sexual Maturation in Boys 201 Individual and Group Differences in Pubertal Growth 202 The Psychological Impact of Pubertal Events 202 Is Puberty Inevitably a Period of Storm and Stress? 203 Reactions to Pubertal Changes 203 Pubertal Change, Emotion, and Social Behavior 204 Early versus Late Pubertal Timing 206 Puberty and Adolescent Health 208 Eating Disorders 208 Sexuality 209 Social Issues: Gay, Lesbian, and Bisexual Youths: Coming Out to Oneself and Others 212 Sexually Transmitted Disease 214 Adolescent Pregnancy and Parenthood 215 A Concluding Note 218 Summary 218 Important Terms and Concepts 221 Part III: Cognitive and Language Development 222 6 Cognitive Development: Piagetian, Core Knowledge, and Vygotskian Perspectives 222 Piaget¿s Cognitive-Developmental Theory 224 Basic Characteristics of Piaget¿s Stages 224 Piaget¿s Ideas About Cognitive Change 225 The Sensorimotor Stage: Birth to 2 Years 226 Sensorimotor Development 227 Follow-Up Research on Infant Cognitive Development 228 Evaluation of the Sensorimotor Stage 234 Milestones: Some Cognitive Attainments of Infancy and Toddlerhood 235 The Preoperational Stage: 2 to 7 Years 236 Advances in Mental Representation 236 Limitations of Preoperational Thought 240 Follow-Up Research on Preoperational Thought 242 Evaluation of the Preoperational Stage 245 Milestones: Some Cognitive Attainments of Early Childhood 246 The Concrete Operational Stage: 7 to 11 Years 247 Concrete Operational Thought 247 Limitations of Concrete Operational Thought 249 Follow-Up Research on Concrete Operational Thought 249 Milestones: Some Cognitive Attainments of Middle Childhood and Adolescence 250 The Formal Operational Stage: 11 Years and Older 251 Hypothetico-Deductive Reasoning 251 Propositional Thought 252 Consequences of Abstract Thought 252 Follow-up Research on Formal Operational Thought 254 Piaget and Education 256 Overall Evaluation of Piaget¿s Theory 257 Is Piaget¿s Account of Cognitive Change Clear and Accurate? 257 Does Cognitive Development Take Place in Stages? 257 Piaget¿s Legacy 258 The Core Knowledge Perspective 258 Infancy: Physical and Numerical Knowledge 259 Children as Naïve Theorists 261 Biology and Environment: Children¿s Understanding of Death 262 Evaluation of the Core Knowledge Perspective 264 Vygotsky¿s Sociocultural Theory 264 Children¿s Private Speech 265 Social Origins of Cognitive Development 265 Vygotsky¿s View of Make-Believe Play 267 Vygotsky and Education 267 From Research to Practice: Social Origins of Make-Believe Play 268 Reciprocal Teaching 269 Cooperative Learning 269 Cultural Influences: Children in Village and Tribal Cultures Observe and Participate in Adult Work 270 Evaluation of Vygotsky¿s Theory 271 Summary 272 Important Terms and Concepts 273 7 Cognitive Development: An Information-Processing Perspective 274 The Information-Processing Approach 276 General Models of Information Processing 276 The Store Model 276 Connectionism 279 Developmental Theories of Information Processing 280 Case¿s Neo-Piagetian Theory 280 Siegler¿s Model of Strategy Choice 282 From Research to Practice: Speech¿Gesture Mismatches: Using the Hand to Read the Mind 284 Attention 284 Sustained, Selective, and Adaptable Attention 285 Planning 287 Social Issues: Enhancing Cognitive Control Through Preschool Education 288 Memory 289 Strategies for Storing Information 289 Biology and Environment: Children with Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder 290 Retrieving Information 292 The Knowledge Base and Memory Performance 295 Scripts 295 Autobiographical Memory 296 Biology and Environment: Infantile Amnesia 298 Eyewitness Memory 298 Metacognition 301 Metacognitive Knowledge 301 Cognitive Self-Regulation 302 Applications of Information Processing to Academic Learning 304 Reading 304 Milestones: Development of Information Processing 305 Mathematics 308 Scientific Reasoning 310 Evaluation of the Information-Processing Approach 312 Summary 313 Important Terms and Concepts 315 8 Intelligence 316 Definitions of Intelligence 318 Alfred Binet: A Holistic View 318 The Factor Analysts: A Multifaceted View 319 Recent Advances in Defining Intelligence 320 Combining Psychometric and Information-Processing Approaches 321 Sternberg¿s Triarchic Theory 322 Gardner¿s Theory of Multiple Intelligences 323 From Research to Practice: Emotional Intelligence 325 Measuring Intelligence 325 Some Commonly Used Intelligence Tests 326 Aptitude and Achievement Tests 326 Tests for Infants 327 Computation and Distribution of IQ Scores 328 What Do Intelligence Tests Predict, and How Well? 329 Stability of IQ Scores 329 IQ as a Predictor of Academic Achievement 330 IQ as a Predictor of Occupational Attainment 330 IQ as a Predictor of Psychological Adjustment 331 Ethnic and Socioeconomic Variations in IQ 332 Differences in General Intelligence 333 Differences in Specific Mental Abilities 333 Explaining Individual and Group Differences in IQ 334 Genetic Influences 334 Adoption Studies: Joint Influence of Heredity and Environment 336 Cultural Influences: The Flynn Effect: Massive Generational Gains in IQ 337 Race and Ethnicity: Genetic or Cultural Groupings? 337 Cultural Bias in Testing 338 Reducing Cultural Bias in Testing 340 Home Environment and Mental Development 341 Social Issues: High-Stakes Testing 342 Early Intervention and Intellectual Development 345 Benefits of Early Intervention 346 Social Issues: The Carolina Abecedarian Project: A Model of Early Intervention 347 The Future of Early Intervention 348 Giftedness: Creativity and Talent 349 The Psychometric View 349 A Multifaceted View 350 Summary 354 Important Terms and Concepts 355 9 Language Development 356 Components of Language 358 Theories of Language Development 358 The Behaviorist Perspective 359 The Nativist Perspective 359 Biology and Environment: Deaf Children Invent Language 360 The Interactionist Perspective 364 Biology and Environment: Language Development in Children with Williams Syndrome 365 Prelinguistic Development: Getting Ready to Talk 367 Receptivity to Language 367 First Speech Sounds 369 Becoming a Communicator 369 From Research to Practice: Parent¿Child Interaction: Impact on Language and Cognitive Development of Deaf Children 371 Phonological Development 372 The Early Phase 372 Appearance of Phonological Strategies 373 Later Phonological Development 374 Semantic Development 375 The Early Phase 375 Later Semantic Development 379 Ideas About How Semantic Development Takes Place 380 Grammatical Development 382 First Word Combinations 382 From Simple Sentences to Complex Grammar 384 Development of Complex Grammatical Forms 385 Later Grammatical Development 386 Ideas About How Grammatical Development Takes Place 387 Pragmatic Development 388 Acquiring Conversational Skills 389 Communicating Clearly 389 Narratives 390 Sociolinguistic Understanding 391 Development of Metalinguistic Awareness 392 Bilingualism: Learning Two Languages in Childhood 392 Milestones: Language Development 394 Social Issues: Two Approaches to Bilingual Education: Canada and the United States 395 Summary 396 Important Terms and Concepts 397 Part IV: Personality and Social Development 398 10 Emotional Development 398 The Functions of Emotions 400 Emotions and Cognitive Processing 400 Emotions and Social Behavior 401 Emotions and Health 401 From Research to Practice: Parental Depression and Child Development 402 Other Features of the Functionalist Approach 402 Development of Emotional Expression 404 Happiness 404 Anger and Sadness 405 Fear 405 Self-Conscious Emotions 406 Emotional Self-Regulation 407 Acquiring Emotional Display Rules 410 Understanding and Responding to the Emotions of Others 412 Social Referencing 412 Emotional Understanding in Childhood 413 Empathy and Sympathy 414 Milestones: Emotional Development 416 Temperament and Development 417 The Structure of Temperament 417 Measuring Temperament 419 Stability of Temperament 419 Biology and Environment: Development of Shyness and Sociability 420 Genetic and Environmental Influences 420 Temperament as a Predictor of Children¿s Behavior 423 Temperament and Child Rearing: The Goodness- of-Fit Model 423 Development of Attachment 425 Bowlby¿s Ethological Theory 426 Measuring the Security of Attachment 427 Stability of Attachment 428 Cultural Variations 429 Factors Affecting Attachment Security 430 Multiple Attachments: The Father¿s Special Role 434 Attachment and Later Development 434 Cultural Influences: The Powerful Role of Paternal Warmth in Development 435 Attachment, Parental Employment, and Child Care 437 Social Issues: Does Child Care in Infancy Threaten Attachment Security and Later Adjustment? 438 Summary 440 Important Terms and Concepts 441 11 Self and Social Understanding 442 Emergence of Self and Development of Self-Concept 444 Self-Awareness 444 The Categorical, Remembered, and Enduring Selves 446 The Inner Self: Young Children¿s Theory of Mind 447 Cultural Influences: Cultural Variations in Personal Storytelling: Implications for Early Self-Concept 448 Self-Concept 451 Biology and Environment: ¿Mindblindness¿ and Autism 452 Contents Cognitive, Social, and Cultural Influences on Self-Concept 453 Milestones: Emergence of Self and Development of Self-Concept 455 Self-Esteem: The Evaluative Side of Self-Concept 455 The Structure of Self-Esteem 456 Changes in Level of Self-Esteem: The Role of Social Comparisons 457 Influences on Self-Esteem 457 Achievement-Related Attributions 459 Milestones: Development of Self-Esteem 463 Constructing an Identity: Who Should I Become? 463 Paths to Identity 464 Identity Status and Psychological Well-Being 465 Social Issues: Adolescent Suicide: Annihilation of the Self 466 Influences on Identity Development 466 Cultural Influences: Identity Development Among Ethnic Minority Adolescents 468 Thinking About Other People 470 Person Perception 470 Perspective Taking 473 Thinking About Relations Between People: Understanding Conflict 476 Social Problem Solving 476 Training Social Problem Solving 477 Summary 478 Important Terms and Concepts 479 12 Moral Development 000 Morality as Rooted in Human Nature 000 Morality as the Adoption of Societal Norms 000 Psychoanalytic Theory 000 Social Learning Theory 000 Cultural Influences: Ethnic Differences in the Consequences of Physical Punishment 000 Limitations of ¿Morality as the Adoption of Societal Norms¿ Perspective 000 Morality as Social Understanding 000 Piaget¿s Theory of Moral Development 000 Evaluation of Piaget¿s Theory 000 Kohlberg¿s Extension of Piaget¿s Theory 000 Research on Kohlberg¿s Stages 000 Are There Sex Differences in Moral Reasoning? 000 Influences on Moral Reasoning 000 Moral Reasoning and Behavior 000 Religious Involvement and Moral Development 000 From Research to Practice: Development of Civic Responsibility 000 Further Challenges to Kohlberg¿s Theory 000 The Domain Approach to Moral Understanding 000 Distributive Justice 000 Milestones: Internalization of Moral Norms and Development of Moral Understanding 000 Development of Morally Relevant Self-Control 000 Todderhood 000 Childhood and Adolescence 000 Individual Differences 000 Milestones: Development of Morally Relevant Self-Control and Aggression 000 The Other Side of Self-Control: Development of Aggression 000 Emergence of Aggression 000 Aggression in Early and Middle Childhood 000 Aggression and Delinquency in Adolescence 000 Stability of Aggression 000 The Family as Training Ground for Aggressive Behavior 000 Social-Cognitive Deficits and Distortions 000 Biology and Environment: Two Routes to Adolescent Delinquency 000 Community and Cultural Influences 000 Helping Children and Parents Control Aggression 000 Cultural Influences: Impact of Ethnic and Political Violence on Children 000 Summary 000 Important Terms and Concepts 000 13 Development of Sex Differences and Gender Roles 000 Gender Stereotypes and Gender Roles 000 Gender Stereotyping in Early Childhood 000 Gender Stereotyping in Middle Childhood and Adolescence 000 Individual and Group Differences in Gender Stereotyping 000 Gender Stereotyping and Gender-Role Adoption 000 Influences on Gender Stereotyping and Gender-Role Adoption 000 The Case for Biology 000 Cultural Influences: Sweden¿s Commitment to Gender Equality 000 Biology and Environment: David: A Boy Who Was Reared as a Girl 000 The Case for Environment 000 From Research to Practice: Children Learn About Gender Through Mother¿Child Conversations 000 Gender Identity 000 Emergence of Gender Identity 000 Gender Identity in Middle Childhood 000 Gender Identity in Adolescence 000 Gender Schema Theory 000 Milestones: Gender Typing 000 To What Extent Do Boys and Girls Really Differ in Gender-Stereotyped Attributes? 000 Mental Abilities 000 Biology and Environment: Sex Differences in Spatial Abilities 000 Personality Traits 000 Developing Non-Gender-Stereotyped Children 000 Summary 000 Important Terms and Concepts 000 Part V: Contexts for Development 000 14 The Family 000 Origins and Functions of the Family 000 The Family as a Social System 000 Direct Influences 000 Indirect Influences 000 From Research to Practice: The Transition to Parenthood 000 Adapting to Change 000 The Family System in Context 000 Socialization Within the Family 000 Styles of Child Rearing 000 What Makes the Authoritative Style Effective? 000 Biology and Environment: Does Parenting Really Matter? 000 Adapting Child Rearing to Children¿s Development 000 Socioeconomic and Ethnic Variations in Child Rearing 000 Cultural Influences: The African-American Extended Family 000 Family Lifestyles and Transitions 000 From Large to Small Families 000 One-Child Families 000 Adoptive Families 000 Gay and Lesbian Families 000 Never-Married Single-Parent Families 000 Summary 000 Important Terms and Concepts 000 15 Peers, Media, and Schooling 000 The Importance of Peer Relations 000 Development of Peer Sociability 000 Infant and Toddler Beginnings 000 The Preschool Years 000 Middle Childhood and Adolescence 000 Influences on Peer Sociability 000 Friendship 000 Thinking About Friendship 000 Characteristics of Friendships 000 Friendship and Adjustment 000 Peer Acceptance 000 Origins of Acceptance in the Peer Situation 000 Social Issues: Bullies and Their Victims 000 Helping Rejected Children 000 Peer Groups 000 First Peer Groups 000 Cliques and Crowds 000 Dating 000 Peer Pressure and Conformity 000 From Research to Practice: Adolescent Substance Use and Abuse 000 Milestones: Development of Peer Relations 629 Media 000 Television 000 Computers 000 Schooling 000 Class and Student Body Size 000 Educational Philosophies 000 Social Issues: School Recess¿A Time to Play, a Time to Learn 000 From Research to Practice: School Readiness and Grade Retention 000 School Transitions 000 Teacher¿Student Interaction 000 Grouping Practices 000 Teaching Students with Special Needs 000 Parent¿School Partnerships 000 How Well-Educated Are American Young People? 000 Cross-National Research on Academic Achievement 000 Making the Transition from School to Work 000 Summary 000 Important Terms and Concepts 000 Glossary G-1 References R-1 Name Index NI-1 Subject Index SI-1 ER -