Child Development Laura E. Berk english

A Personal Note to Students xii Preface for Instructors xii
Part I: Theory and Research in Child Development 2
1 History, Theory, and
Applied Directions 2
The Field of Child Development 4
Domains of Development 4
Periods of Development 5
Basic Issues 6
Continuous or Discontinuous Development? 7
One Course of Development or Many? 8
Relative Influence of Nature and Nurture? 8
A Balanced Point of View 9
Biology and Environment: Resilient Children 10
Historical Foundations 10
Medieval Times 10
The Reformation 11
Philosophies of the Enlightenment 12
Scientific Beginnings 12
From Research to Practice: Social Change and the Popular Literature on Parenting 15
Mid-Twentieth-Century Theories 16
The Psychoanalytic Perspective 16
Behaviorism and Social Learning Theory 19
Piaget¿s Cognitive-Developmental Theory 20
Recent Theoretical Perspectives 22
Information Processing 22 Ethology and Evolutionary Developmental Psychology 24 Vygotsky¿s Sociocultural Theory 25 Ecological Systems Theory 26
Cultural Influences: !Kung Infancy: Acquiring Culture 27
New Directions: Development as a Dynamic System 29
Comparing Child Development Theories 30
Applied Directions: Child Development and Social Policy 32
Culture and Public Policies 33
Contributions of Child Development Research 34
Social Issues: Welfare Reform, Poverty, and Child Development 35
Looking Toward the Future 36
Summary 37 Important Terms and Concepts 39
2 Research Strategies 40
From Theory to Hypothesis 42 Common Methods of Gathering Information 42
Systematic Observation 43
Self-Reports: Interviews and Questionnaires 46
Psychophysiological Methods 47
The Clinical, or Case Study, Method 49
Biology and Environment: Prenatal Iron Deficiency, Brain Development, and Memory Impairments in Infants of Diabetic Mothers: Findings of ERP Research 50
Methods for Studying Culture 50
Cultural Influences: Immigrant Youths: Amazing Adaptation 52
Reliability and Validity: Keys to Scientifically Sound Research 54
Reliability 54
Validity 54
General Research Designs 55
Correlational Design 55
Experimental Design 57
Modified Experimental Designs 57
Social Issues: Can Musical Experiences Enhance Intelligence? 59
Designs for Studying Development 60
The Longitudinal Design 60
The Cross-Sectional Design 62
Improving Developmental Designs 63
Ethics in Research on Children 65
From Research to Practice: Children¿s Research Risks: Developmental and Individual Differences 67
Summary 68 Important Terms and Concepts 69
Part II: Foundations of Development 70
3 Biological Foundations, Prenatal Development, and Birth 70
Genetic Foundations 72
The Genetic Code 72
The Sex Cells 73
Boy or Girl? 74
Multiple Offspring 74
Patterns of Genetic Inheritance 75
Chromosomal Abnormalities 80
Reproductive Choices 82
Genetic Counseling 82
Prenatal Diagnosis and Fetal Medicine 82
From Research to Practice: The Pros and Cons of Reproductive Technologies 84
Prenatal Development 86
Conception 87
Milestones: Prenatal Development 88
The Period of the Zygote 88
The Period of the Embryo 90
The Period of the Fetus 91
Prenatal Environmental Influences 93
Teratogens 93
Biology and Environment: The Prenatal Environment and Health in Later Life 96
Other Maternal Factors 102
Childbirth 106
The Baby¿s Adaptation to Labor and Delivery 106
The Newborn Baby¿s Appearance 107
Assessing the Newborn¿s Physical Condition:
The Apgar Scale 108
Approaches to Childbirth 108
Natural, or Prepared, Childbirth 109
Home Delivery 110
Labor and Delivery Medication 111
Birth Complications 111
Oxygen Deprivation 111
Preterm and Low-Birth-Weight Infants 112
Social Issues: A Cross-National Perspective on Health Care and Other Policies for Parents and Newborn Babies 116
Birth Complications, Parenting, and Resilience 116
Heredity, Environment, and Behavior: A Look Ahead 118
The Question, ¿How Much?¿ 119
The Question, ¿How?¿ 120
Summary 124 Important Terms and Concepts 125
4 Infancy: Early Learning, Motor Skills, and Perceptual Capacities 126
The Organized Newborn 128
Reflexes 128
States 130
Cultural Influences: Cultural Variation in Infant Sleeping Arrangements 132 From Research to Practice: The Mysterious Tragedy of Sudden Infant Death Syndrome 134
Neonatal Behavioral Assessment 137
Learning Capacities 137
Motor Development in Infancy 144
The Sequence of Motor Development 145
Milestones: Gross and Fine Motor Development in the First Two Years 145
Motor Skills as Dynamic Systems 146 Fine Motor Development: Reaching and Grasping 148
Perceptual Development in Infancy 150
Touch 150
Taste and Smell 151
Hearing 152
Biology and Environment: ¿Tuning In¿ to Familiar Speech, Faces, and Music: A Sensitive Period for Culture-Specific Learning 154
Milestones: Development of Touch, Taste, Smell, and Hearing 155
Vision 155
Biology and Environment: Development of Infants with Severe Visual Impairments 159
Intermodal Perception 163
Milestones: Visual Development in Infancy 164
Understanding Perceptual Development 165
Early Deprivation and Enrichment: Is Infancy a Sensitive Period of Development? 167 Summary 169 Important Terms and Concepts 171
5 Physical Growth 172
The Course of Physical Growth 174
Changes in Body Size 174
Changes in Body Proportions 175
Changes in Muscle¿Fat Makeup 175
Skeletal Growth 176
Gains in Gross Motor Skills 176
Milestones: Gross Motor Development in Early and Middle Childhood 177 From Research to Practice: Sex Differences in Gross Motor Development 178
Hormonal Influences on Physical Growth 180
Worldwide Variations in Body Size 181
Secular Trends 182
Brain Development 183
Development of Neurons 183
Development of the Cerebral Cortex 184
Biology and Environment: Brain Plasticity: Insights from Research on Brain-Damaged Children and Adults 187
Other Advances in Brain Development 188
Sensitive Periods in Brain Development 189
Factors Affecting Physical Growth 190
Heredity 190
Nutrition 191
Biology and Environment: Low-Level Lead Exposure and Children¿s Development 192
Infectious Disease 198
Emotional Well-Being 199
Puberty: The Physical Transition to Adulthood 200
Sexual Maturation in Girls 200
Milestones: Pubertal Development in North American Boys and Girls 201
Sexual Maturation in Boys 201 Individual and Group Differences in Pubertal Growth 202
The Psychological Impact of Pubertal Events 202
Is Puberty Inevitably a Period of Storm and Stress? 203 Reactions to Pubertal Changes 203 Pubertal Change, Emotion, and Social Behavior 204 Early versus Late Pubertal Timing 206
Puberty and Adolescent Health 208
Eating Disorders 208
Sexuality 209
Social Issues: Gay, Lesbian, and Bisexual Youths: Coming Out to Oneself and Others 212
Sexually Transmitted Disease 214
Adolescent Pregnancy and Parenthood 215
A Concluding Note 218
Summary 218 Important Terms and Concepts 221
Part III: Cognitive and Language Development 222
6 Cognitive Development: Piagetian, Core Knowledge, and Vygotskian Perspectives 222
Piaget¿s Cognitive-Developmental Theory 224
Basic Characteristics of Piaget¿s Stages 224
Piaget¿s Ideas About Cognitive Change 225
The Sensorimotor Stage: Birth to 2 Years 226 Sensorimotor Development 227 Follow-Up Research on Infant Cognitive Development 228 Evaluation of the Sensorimotor Stage 234
Milestones: Some Cognitive Attainments of Infancy and Toddlerhood 235
The Preoperational Stage: 2 to 7 Years 236 Advances in Mental Representation 236 Limitations of Preoperational Thought 240 Follow-Up Research on Preoperational Thought 242 Evaluation of the Preoperational Stage 245
Milestones: Some Cognitive Attainments of Early Childhood 246
The Concrete Operational Stage: 7 to 11 Years 247
Concrete Operational Thought 247 Limitations of Concrete Operational Thought 249 Follow-Up Research on Concrete Operational Thought 249
Milestones: Some Cognitive Attainments of Middle Childhood and Adolescence 250
The Formal Operational Stage: 11 Years and Older 251
Hypothetico-Deductive Reasoning 251 Propositional Thought 252 Consequences of Abstract Thought 252 Follow-up Research on Formal Operational Thought 254
Piaget and Education 256 Overall Evaluation of Piaget¿s Theory 257
Is Piaget¿s Account of Cognitive Change Clear
and Accurate? 257 Does Cognitive Development Take Place in Stages? 257 Piaget¿s Legacy 258
The Core Knowledge Perspective 258
Infancy: Physical and Numerical Knowledge 259
Children as Naïve Theorists 261
Biology and Environment: Children¿s Understanding of Death 262
Evaluation of the Core Knowledge Perspective 264
Vygotsky¿s Sociocultural Theory 264
Children¿s Private Speech 265
Social Origins of Cognitive Development 265
Vygotsky¿s View of Make-Believe Play 267
Vygotsky and Education 267
From Research to Practice: Social Origins of Make-Believe Play 268
Reciprocal Teaching 269
Cooperative Learning 269
Cultural Influences: Children in Village and Tribal Cultures Observe and Participate in Adult Work 270
Evaluation of Vygotsky¿s Theory 271 Summary 272 Important Terms and Concepts 273
7 Cognitive Development:
An Information-Processing
Perspective 274
The Information-Processing Approach 276 General Models of Information Processing 276
The Store Model 276
Connectionism 279
Developmental Theories of Information Processing 280
Case¿s Neo-Piagetian Theory 280
Siegler¿s Model of Strategy Choice 282
From Research to Practice: Speech¿Gesture Mismatches: Using the Hand to Read the Mind 284
Attention 284
Sustained, Selective, and Adaptable Attention 285
Planning 287
Social Issues: Enhancing Cognitive Control Through Preschool Education 288
Memory 289
Strategies for Storing Information 289
Biology and Environment: Children with Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder 290
Retrieving Information 292
The Knowledge Base and Memory Performance 295
Scripts 295
Autobiographical Memory 296
Biology and Environment: Infantile Amnesia 298
Eyewitness Memory 298
Metacognition 301
Metacognitive Knowledge 301
Cognitive Self-Regulation 302
Applications of Information Processing to Academic Learning 304
Reading 304
Milestones: Development of Information Processing 305
Mathematics 308
Scientific Reasoning 310
Evaluation of the Information-Processing Approach 312 Summary 313 Important Terms and Concepts 315
8 Intelligence 316
Definitions of Intelligence 318
Alfred Binet: A Holistic View 318
The Factor Analysts: A Multifaceted View 319
Recent Advances in Defining Intelligence 320
Combining Psychometric and Information-Processing
Approaches 321
Sternberg¿s Triarchic Theory 322
Gardner¿s Theory of Multiple Intelligences 323
From Research to Practice: Emotional Intelligence 325
Measuring Intelligence 325
Some Commonly Used Intelligence Tests 326
Aptitude and Achievement Tests 326
Tests for Infants 327
Computation and Distribution of IQ Scores 328
What Do Intelligence Tests Predict, and How Well? 329
Stability of IQ Scores 329
IQ as a Predictor of Academic Achievement 330
IQ as a Predictor of Occupational Attainment 330
IQ as a Predictor of Psychological Adjustment 331
Ethnic and Socioeconomic Variations in IQ 332
Differences in General Intelligence 333
Differences in Specific Mental Abilities 333
Explaining Individual and Group Differences in IQ 334
Genetic Influences 334
Adoption Studies: Joint Influence of Heredity
and Environment 336
Cultural Influences: The Flynn Effect: Massive Generational Gains in IQ 337
Race and Ethnicity: Genetic or Cultural Groupings? 337 Cultural Bias in Testing 338 Reducing Cultural Bias in Testing 340 Home Environment and Mental Development 341
Social Issues: High-Stakes Testing 342
Early Intervention and Intellectual Development 345
Benefits of Early Intervention 346
Social Issues: The Carolina Abecedarian Project: A Model of Early Intervention 347
The Future of Early Intervention 348
Giftedness: Creativity and Talent 349
The Psychometric View 349
A Multifaceted View 350
Summary 354 Important Terms and Concepts 355
9 Language Development 356
Components of Language 358 Theories of Language Development 358
The Behaviorist Perspective 359
The Nativist Perspective 359
Biology and Environment: Deaf Children Invent Language 360
The Interactionist Perspective 364
Biology and Environment: Language Development in Children with Williams Syndrome 365
Prelinguistic Development: Getting Ready to Talk 367
Receptivity to Language 367
First Speech Sounds 369
Becoming a Communicator 369
From Research to Practice: Parent¿Child Interaction: Impact on Language and Cognitive Development of Deaf Children 371
Phonological Development 372
The Early Phase 372
Appearance of Phonological Strategies 373
Later Phonological Development 374
Semantic Development 375
The Early Phase 375 Later Semantic Development 379 Ideas About How Semantic Development Takes Place 380
Grammatical Development 382
First Word Combinations 382
From Simple Sentences to Complex Grammar 384
Development of Complex Grammatical Forms 385
Later Grammatical Development 386
Ideas About How Grammatical Development
Takes Place 387
Pragmatic Development 388
Acquiring Conversational Skills 389
Communicating Clearly 389
Narratives 390
Sociolinguistic Understanding 391
Development of Metalinguistic Awareness 392 Bilingualism: Learning Two Languages in Childhood 392
Milestones: Language Development 394 Social Issues: Two Approaches to Bilingual Education: Canada and the United States 395
Summary 396 Important Terms and Concepts 397
Part IV: Personality and Social Development 398
10 Emotional Development 398
The Functions of Emotions 400
Emotions and Cognitive Processing 400
Emotions and Social Behavior 401
Emotions and Health 401
From Research to Practice: Parental Depression and Child Development 402
Other Features of the Functionalist Approach 402
Development of Emotional Expression 404
Happiness 404
Anger and Sadness 405
Fear 405
Self-Conscious Emotions 406
Emotional Self-Regulation 407
Acquiring Emotional Display Rules 410
Understanding and Responding to the Emotions of Others 412
Social Referencing 412
Emotional Understanding in Childhood 413
Empathy and Sympathy 414
Milestones: Emotional Development 416
Temperament and Development 417
The Structure of Temperament 417
Measuring Temperament 419
Stability of Temperament 419
Biology and Environment: Development of Shyness and Sociability 420
Genetic and Environmental Influences 420
Temperament as a Predictor of Children¿s
Behavior 423
Temperament and Child Rearing: The Goodness-
of-Fit Model 423
Development of Attachment 425
Bowlby¿s Ethological Theory 426
Measuring the Security of Attachment 427
Stability of Attachment 428
Cultural Variations 429
Factors Affecting Attachment Security 430
Multiple Attachments: The Father¿s Special Role 434
Attachment and Later Development 434
Cultural Influences: The Powerful Role of Paternal Warmth in Development 435
Attachment, Parental Employment, and Child Care 437
Social Issues: Does Child Care in Infancy Threaten Attachment Security and Later Adjustment? 438
Summary 440 Important Terms and Concepts 441
11 Self and Social Understanding 442
Emergence of Self and Development of Self-Concept 444
Self-Awareness 444
The Categorical, Remembered, and
Enduring Selves 446
The Inner Self: Young Children¿s Theory of Mind 447
Cultural Influences: Cultural Variations in Personal Storytelling: Implications for Early Self-Concept 448
Self-Concept 451
Biology and Environment: ¿Mindblindness¿ and Autism 452
Contents
Cognitive, Social, and Cultural Influences
on Self-Concept 453
Milestones: Emergence of Self and Development of Self-Concept 455
Self-Esteem: The Evaluative Side of Self-Concept 455
The Structure of Self-Esteem 456
Changes in Level of Self-Esteem: The Role of
Social Comparisons 457
Influences on Self-Esteem 457
Achievement-Related Attributions 459
Milestones: Development of Self-Esteem 463
Constructing an Identity: Who Should I Become? 463
Paths to Identity 464
Identity Status and Psychological Well-Being 465
Social Issues: Adolescent Suicide: Annihilation of the Self 466
Influences on Identity Development 466
Cultural Influences: Identity Development Among Ethnic Minority Adolescents 468
Thinking About Other People 470
Person Perception 470
Perspective Taking 473
Thinking About Relations Between People: Understanding Conflict 476
Social Problem Solving 476
Training Social Problem Solving 477
Summary 478 Important Terms and Concepts 479
12 Moral Development 000
Morality as Rooted in Human Nature 000 Morality as the Adoption of Societal Norms 000
Psychoanalytic Theory 000
Social Learning Theory 000
Cultural Influences: Ethnic Differences in the Consequences of Physical Punishment 000
Limitations of ¿Morality as the Adoption of Societal Norms¿ Perspective 000
Morality as Social Understanding 000
Piaget¿s Theory of Moral Development 000
Evaluation of Piaget¿s Theory 000
Kohlberg¿s Extension of Piaget¿s Theory 000
Research on Kohlberg¿s Stages 000
Are There Sex Differences in Moral Reasoning? 000
Influences on Moral Reasoning 000
Moral Reasoning and Behavior 000
Religious Involvement and Moral Development 000
From Research to Practice: Development of Civic Responsibility 000
Further Challenges to Kohlberg¿s Theory 000
The Domain Approach to Moral Understanding 000
Distributive Justice 000
Milestones: Internalization of Moral Norms and Development of Moral Understanding 000
Development of Morally Relevant Self-Control 000
Todderhood 000
Childhood and Adolescence 000
Individual Differences 000
Milestones: Development of Morally Relevant Self-Control and Aggression 000
The Other Side of Self-Control: Development of Aggression 000
Emergence of Aggression 000 Aggression in Early and Middle Childhood 000 Aggression and Delinquency in Adolescence 000 Stability of Aggression 000 The Family as Training Ground for Aggressive Behavior 000 Social-Cognitive Deficits and Distortions 000
Biology and Environment: Two Routes to Adolescent Delinquency 000
Community and Cultural Influences 000 Helping Children and Parents Control Aggression 000
Cultural Influences: Impact of Ethnic and Political Violence on Children 000
Summary 000 Important Terms and Concepts 000
13 Development of Sex Differences and Gender Roles 000
Gender Stereotypes and Gender Roles 000
Gender Stereotyping in Early Childhood 000
Gender Stereotyping in Middle Childhood
and Adolescence 000
Individual and Group Differences in
Gender Stereotyping 000
Gender Stereotyping and Gender-Role Adoption 000
Influences on Gender Stereotyping and Gender-Role Adoption 000
The Case for Biology 000
Cultural Influences: Sweden¿s Commitment to Gender Equality 000 Biology and Environment: David: A Boy Who Was Reared as a Girl 000
The Case for Environment 000
From Research to Practice: Children Learn About Gender Through Mother¿Child Conversations 000
Gender Identity 000
Emergence of Gender Identity 000
Gender Identity in Middle Childhood 000
Gender Identity in Adolescence 000
Gender Schema Theory 000
Milestones: Gender Typing 000
To What Extent Do Boys and Girls Really Differ in Gender-Stereotyped Attributes? 000
Mental Abilities 000
Biology and Environment: Sex Differences in Spatial Abilities 000
Personality Traits 000
Developing Non-Gender-Stereotyped Children 000 Summary 000 Important Terms and Concepts 000
Part V: Contexts for Development 000
14 The Family 000
Origins and Functions of the Family 000 The Family as a Social System 000
Direct Influences 000
Indirect Influences 000
From Research to Practice: The Transition to Parenthood 000
Adapting to Change 000
The Family System in Context 000
Socialization Within the Family 000
Styles of Child Rearing 000
What Makes the Authoritative Style Effective? 000
Biology and Environment: Does Parenting Really Matter? 000
Adapting Child Rearing to Children¿s Development 000 Socioeconomic and Ethnic Variations in Child Rearing 000
Cultural Influences: The African-American Extended Family 000
Family Lifestyles and Transitions 000
From Large to Small Families 000
One-Child Families 000
Adoptive Families 000
Gay and Lesbian Families 000
Never-Married Single-Parent Families 000 Summary 000 Important Terms and Concepts 000
15 Peers, Media, and Schooling 000
The Importance of Peer Relations 000 Development of Peer Sociability 000
Infant and Toddler Beginnings 000
The Preschool Years 000
Middle Childhood and Adolescence 000
Influences on Peer Sociability 000 Friendship 000
Thinking About Friendship 000
Characteristics of Friendships 000
Friendship and Adjustment 000
Peer Acceptance 000
Origins of Acceptance in the Peer Situation 000
Social Issues: Bullies and Their Victims 000
Helping Rejected Children 000
Peer Groups 000
First Peer Groups 000
Cliques and Crowds 000
Dating 000
Peer Pressure and Conformity 000
From Research to Practice: Adolescent Substance Use and Abuse 000 Milestones: Development of Peer Relations 629
Media 000
Television 000
Computers 000
Schooling 000
Class and Student Body Size 000
Educational Philosophies 000
Social Issues: School Recess¿A Time to Play, a Time to Learn 000 From Research to Practice: School Readiness and Grade Retention 000
School Transitions 000
Teacher¿Student Interaction 000
Grouping Practices 000
Teaching Students with Special Needs 000
Parent¿School Partnerships 000
How Well-Educated Are American Young People? 000
Cross-National Research on
Academic Achievement 000
Making the Transition from School
to Work 000
Summary 000 Important Terms and Concepts 000
Glossary G-1
References R-1
Name Index NI-1
Subject Index SI-1